prolonged engagement in qualitative research

Before Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. 2023 Feb 7;22(1):35. doi: 10.1186/s12912-023-01191-2. Nurses' Perceptions of Infusion Therapy During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Prolonged engagement, at least for a complete cycle in . This study confirmed credibility by using prolonged engagement with the patients to fully understand their perceptions concerning the triage system in the emergency department of the selected . We can easily see how methods that create consistency of results, regardless of which researcher conducts the study, certainly reflects rigor. 235 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<797782AFA0570B459B4441C93A1A00FB>]/Index[215 36]/Info 214 0 R/Length 95/Prev 170283/Root 216 0 R/Size 251/Type/XRef/W[1 2 1]>>stream For this reason, reports should be well written to include description, analysis, and synthesis (cf., Wolcott, 1994), as well as to reveal the biases and assumptions of the researchers involved. This is crucial to ensuring that your findings are trustworthy and reliable.. /Length 10 . This involves spending adequate time observing various aspects of a setting, speaking with a range of people, and developing relationships and rapport with members of the culture. If such evidence is found, however, then the hypotheses are modified to account for the new data associated with the negative cases. If, however, the researcher can interview multiple students who have had similar experiences, connect this to other datasets (such as instances of bullying in school behavioral referrals), connect this to previous studies or theoretical literature, and find similar results from other researchers in other contexts, then the results will be more credible to a reader. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies 'Qv.=wW }m9 Dependability is the standard by which the logic, reasoning, methods, and results are expected to be stable or consistent over time. The purpose of peer debriefing is to ensure that your emerging analyses appear to be true to what is actually reflected in the data. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Here are how those four concepts are to be understood: Dependability is used to measure or demonstrate the consistency and reliability of your studys results. For instance, any researcher studying young children would not just need to be able to interpret behaviors through etic theoretical or psychological lenses (e.g., phobias, apathy, intelligence) but would also need to show that they understand the children as they understand themselves, often using their same words (e.g., "love," "hate," "smart," "dumb," "mad"). On top of all of this, your methods need to be constructed such that your study can truly be considered sufficiently rigorous. %PDF-1.7 % Conclusion: Communication between Parents and Preschool-Aged Children about Tuberculosis Preventive Treatment: A Qualitative Study. Data sources: Thats why we guide you through every step of the qualitative research design process. /Pages 4 0 R 2004 Nov;48(4):388-96. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03207.x. HRB Open Res. Keep records of all raw data and store it in organized archives. The dissertation is often the first empirical research project a doctoral candidate has completed. A disinterested peer might include anyone who is willing to ask probing questions and who is not a participant or researcher in the setting where the study is being conducted. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies understand quality and rigor in qualitative research. If the researcher's original hypotheses are simply confirmed, then qualitative inquiry probably is not the appropriate approach to use, but by discovering emic perspectives, researchers can add richness to existing understandings of phenomena and make their results more credible. The rationale for trustworthiness as the central objective of these standards is centered on the desire most people have for truth. I should also mention here the importance of conducting your study in a manner and location that is feasible for you. 27 Furthermore, Leininger 25 (1985) claimed that it is not whether the data are reliable or valid but how the terms reliability and validity are defined. Thematic analysis is a flexible and accessible approach to evaluating qualitative datasuch as interview transcripts, field notes or other textsthat emphasizes identifying, analyzing and interpreting patterns, meanings and themes. MeSH 2011 Oct;21(10):1413-26. doi: 10.1177/1049732311410988. Naturalistic research is concerned with phenomena as they exist in their natural settings, and qualitative research methods are perfectly suited for exploring such phenomena. Finally, Id like to mention that in the final chapter of many dissertations, the researcher acknowledges their bias and how it may have affected the findings. When does prolonged engagement provide scope, persistent observation provides depth? This starts by tracking the precise methods you use for data collection, analysis and interpretation and providing adequate contextual information about each piece, so that the study could theoretically be replicated by other researchers and generate consistent results. Introduction Actigraphy is commonly used to record free living physical activity in both typically and atypically developing children. This may be done either explicitly in an appendix, in the foreword, or in the body of the text. [Reconsidering evaluation criteria regarding health care research: toward an integrative framework of quantitative and qualitative criteria]. &gc(us q8j.O,:;0|NPY[E)EYB:V80P 18 0 obj To be persistent, the researcher must explore details of the phenomenon under study to a deep enough level that they can decide what is important and what is irrelevant and focus on the most relevant aspects. s 1 Katrina M. Daytner . CC BY: This work is released under a CC BY license, which means that Novice researchers tend to paint themselves into corners when designing interview questions, making them either too broad (which leads to few discernible, repeated themes in the data) or too narrow (which restricts the scope of the findings). Qualitative inquiry. There is definitely a place in the world for opinion pieces, but if you are setting out to conduct research, you need to take measures to faithfully represent the viewpoints you have proposed to explore (i.e., your participants viewpoints). Background: There is increasing recognition of the valuable contribution qualitative research can make to nursing knowledge. MeSH Adult Gastroenterology Trainees' Experience of Receiving Feedback on Their Performance of Endoscopy in the Workplace. 2006 Jul;55(2):215-29. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2006.03898.x. He also conducts qualitative research on peoples personal and professional evaluation lives, including how they use evaluation to enhance learning in various settings. 2020 Jan;30(2):196-204. doi: 10.1177/1049732319860267. This holds true for all research, not just qualitative inquiry. An audit trail is simply the records kept of how a qualitative study was conducted. If youre thinking about a qualitative research method for your study, then you will need to understand both the concept of trustworthiness and the associated procedures that should be written into your methods chapter. 2022 Sep 14;27(5):370-376. doi: 10.4103/ijnmr.ijnmr_8_21. // -->, become oriented to the sitution so that the context is appreciated and understood, be able to detect and account for distortions that might be in the data (e.g. PMC 19 0 obj H\n0~ They suggested four types of standards be used to ensure trustworthiness: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Transferability requires significance testing, whereas generalizability requires proper sampling. Following are suggested procedures for promoting credibility in qualitative research and analysis: The next dimension of trustworthiness is dependability. Earlier we established that research is both systematic and auditable. Royce Kimmons is an Associate Professor of Instructional Psychology and Technology at Brigham Young University where he studies digital participation divides specifically in the realms of social media, open education, and classroom technology use. Observations require prolonged engagement and persistent observations in the field ( Lincoln & Guba, 1985 ), together with the ability of the researcher (i.e., investigation validity; Kvale, 1995 ), which is often filtered by the bias and the lens through what is familiar or known. In addition to following these standards, rigor must also be effectively communicated to the reader in order to serve its purpose. endobj If a researcher can provide evidence of having engaged in peer debriefing and can show the reader how the report was modified through the influence of the peer, credibility is improved. Indeed, this is a question that researchers have discussed and debated in great depth, with some suggesting that qualitative research is soft science if science at all. . or "No, I actually meant something else." A major element of the dissertation assistance we offer you serves to help you to present your findings in such a manner. Shenton explained that since the findings of a qualitative project are specific to a small number of particular environments and individuals, it is impossible to demonstrate that the findings and conclusions are applicable to other situations (p. 69). We can help you achieve trustworthiness in your data by showing you how to ensure its credibility, transferability, confirmability, and dependability, per Lincoln and Guba (1986). the life of the research context (e.g., an entire semester for a learning to learn class) has long been recognized as desirable. eCollection 2023. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! This site needs JavaScript to work properly. For this phase, youll want to provide thick descriptions of the context of your study and details on the process of coding and analyzing the data. When in-depth stakeholder perspectives are needed, qualitative approaches are often the best methodological choice to ensure their viewpoints and experiences are captured when evaluating the consequences of policy implementation or when informing regulation design. Studies should, therefore, provide a rationale to readers that both the goal of the research study is meaningful (i.e., meaningful ends) and also that qualitative methods are the right or best way of achieving the intended goal (i.e., appropriate means). National Library of Medicine Through peer debriefing, reflexive journaling and researcher triangulation, you have the option to generate initial codes using a reliable coding framework. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). . Others have argued, however, that subjectivity pervades human perception and cognition, and that although surveys yield numerical results that seem reassuringly objective, the conversion of human perception and experience to quantified variables is an inherently subjective process (Patton, 2014). Prolonged engagement is a technique whereby researchers immerse themselves in the site or context of the study long enough to build trust with the participants and for the researcher to experience the breadth of variation and to overcome distortions due to their presence (cf., Hawthorne Effect). Sampling in interview-based qualitative research: A theoretical and practical guide. External audit is the primary recommendation for bolstering both dependability and confirmability. endobj Dr. Williams is an emeritus professor from IPT at Brigham Young University. you are free to do with it as you please as long as you properly To check the dependability of a qualitative study, one looks to see if the researcher has been careless or made mistakes in conceptualizing the study, collecting the data, interpreting the findings and reporting results. We can help you to plan for and conduct such an audit and tell you where it should be mentioned in your dissertation. would have deviated from the established reasoning and methods proposed in the study. Although one might argue that even validated quantitative surveys are subject to researcher bias as human-created tools of measurement (Patton, 2014), striving to minimize the imposition of researcher bias on ones research findings is an aim of qualitative and quantitative researchers alike. 2021 Apr 12;8:23743735211007359. doi: 10.1177/23743735211007359. A multiple case study that explored the role of the clinical skills laboratory in preparing students for the real world of practice. Much of what you read, including elements of this post(!) In other words, the qualitative researcher should consider whether their findings, which were discovered in one situated context, can apply to other contexts or settings as well (such as where the reader is working). Existing documents such as legal proceedings or news articles can also be used as text-based data in qualitative studies. Each researcher is free to create a unique audit trail that fits the study being conducted, and the audit trail may be used as a reference throughout the study to review what has been done and to consider alternative plans, in addition to serving as part of the dependability and confirmability audits described above. Would you like email updates of new search results? Careers. (2017). You can also employ diagramming to track patterns and themes in the data. The logic used for selecting people and events to observe, interview, and include in the study should be clearly presented. % endstream endobj startxref endstream Research for tomorrow's schools. Epub 2021 Mar 19. also react with some suspicion to the notion of prolonged engagement in view. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1986). Would you like to. In terms of confirmability, you want to prove that your qualitative research is neutral and not influenced by the assumptions or biases of the researchers. In qualitative methodologies, this rigor typically means two things: (a) that we are disciplined(Cronbach & Suppes, 1969), meaning that we follow certain key standards established by other researchers, and (b) that we are trustworthy(Guba & Lincoln, 1989; Lincoln & Guba, 1985), meaning that whoever reads our work should be able to feel informed and confident in both what we did and what we concluded. Whether findings can be transferred or not is an empirical question, which cannot be answered by the researcher alone, because the reader's context must be compared to the research context to identify similarities. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the /Type /Catalog While the flexible nature of qualitative research should be embraced, strategies to ensure rigour must be in place. << This may mean an entire year or longer for some studies or as little as a month for others, depending on the size of the study and the level of depth needed for the researcher to become part of a community and understand what is happening. stream Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: Concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. The auditor can then go from this listing to the field notes, audio and video recordings, and other files associated with the inquiry to reconstruct how the study was conducted, to understand how conclusions were reached, and to make the dependability and confirmability judgments described earlier. Qualitative content analysis: A focus on trustworthiness. The first dimension of trustworthiness we will discuss is credibility. This allows other researchers to evaluate the dependability of the processes involved in conducting specific qualitative research studies. C`i$#0:2CHtj9af).?^xn}7mly~QunMi?,ir]8/V+^^%/.L0aqHYmo}}Yrh1. Spending sufficient time in the field to learn or understand the culture, social setting, or phenomenon of interest. If prolonged . Are you truly representing what was said to you? Although there are paradoxes in the world, a report that presents conflicting pieces of evidence without discussing them and trying to discern their nature (i.e., whether it is a true paradox or whether one side of the issue is erroneous) needs to be improved. Qualitative Inquiry in Daily Life (1st ed.). The site is secure. It used the semi-structured interview . 2013 Nov;69(11):2423-31. doi: 10.1111/jan.12127. An official website of the United States government. As the name implies, transferability measures whether, or to what extent, the studys results are applicable within other contexts, circumstances and settings. These include prolonged engagement, persistent observation, triangulation, peer debriefing, negative case analysis, and member checking (Lincoln & Guba, 1986). You also can return to the raw data to test for referential adequacy. Participants should also be given anonymity in any reports, and there should be no indications that participants were treated with disrespect or cruelty. Dimens Crit Care Nurs. The more similar, the more likely it is that the findings will be transferable. An official website of the United States government. If only the researcher's outsider perspective is present, then the study will lack one of the most critical characteristics of a qualitative study: the type of understanding that can only come from empathy. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Discussion: In short, more details give readers more power to discern which results might transfer to their contexts and which might not, and the rigorous qualitative researcher provides readers with sufficient detail to determine for themselves whether study results will transfer to their unique contexts. Its content focuses on basic skills education and includes topics such as developmental writing, developmental mathematics, reading, tutoring, assessment and placement, and program evaluation. This validates that the represented emic perspective is accurate and is one of the most important techniques for ensuring credibility. With regard to the external audit mentioned in the previous section, Lincoln and Guba (1986) suggested that the part concerned with the product (data and reconstructions) results in a confirmability judgment (p. 77). Would you like email updates of new search results? Reference to literature and findings by other authors that confirm the researcher's interpretations can strengthen confirmability of the study in addition to information and interpretations by people other than the researcher from within the inquiry site itself. For instance, a study that was attempting to understand African American students' experiences in an inner-city school but then shifted to interviewing white students, rural students, etc. The danger here is that researchers might approach qualitative research with a means-oriented mindset, wherein they apply qualitative methodologies inappropriately to problems that they are not equipped to solve, thereby overstepping the limits of the paradigm and failing the incommensurability test. An inquiry auditperformed by an outside personis one tool used to examine the dependability of a qualitative study. These practices transform the world. Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1989). Epub 2011 May 25. zHW~6{4/7,[b0kh Gj D/sQpg~:w The other major problem that we help to head off at the pass comes for many students at the qualitative analysis stage, wherein the data are dissected to tease out themes that can be used to answer the research questions. If you have ever debated with others about the meanings of, say, a political speech, song lyrics, or even a past conversation, then you understand how different people can bring different meanings to the same text. +W,2+AVY d%Jg>x|w++++++++ 0++sPA_A2E91CFOi4x= FOi4x= F7b4`\TYlpe0y]at and transmitted securely. To address these four major dimensions of scientific rigor in the qualitative research paradigm, Lincoln and Guba (1986) proposed a set of qualitative analogs: credibility, transferability, confirmability, and dependability. However, as Shenton (2004) pointed out, the changing nature of the phenomena scrutinized by qualitative researchers renders such provisions problematic in their work (p. 71). There is a misguided assumption that qualitative data is somehow inferior, or at least more questionable, than quantitative data derived from market research. The conversion of human perception to quantified variables, however, involves a collection of procedures that contribute in various ways to the quality of quantitative research. Before If you are considering using a qualitative research method for your dissertationas so many of our dissertation consulting clients arethen it will definitely help to get familiar with the general concept of trustworthiness as well as the specific practices that can be used to build your studys rigor. . doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282326. government site. providing a platform for multi-stakeholder engagement to a particular topic, coupled with bringing an in-country . Team members can help vet themes and subthemes during this phase. RWJF 2008 "Qualitative Research Guidelines Project." July 2006. Qualitative case study data analysis: an example from practice. Bookshelf government site. Qualitative research plays an important role in understanding consumer attitudes and behaviors, measuring brand perceptions, finessing product development efforts, and achieving other goals as you strive to keep up with shifting demands from customers, new competitors and new technologies. Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. But is it rigorous? eCollection 2022 Sep-Oct. Smith RW, Jarvis T, Sandhu HS, Pinto AD, O'Neill M, Di Ruggiero E, Pawa J, Rosella L, Allin S. Health Policy. Insider-outsider perspectives of participant observation. It also can be thought of in terms of generalizability. Effects of open textbook adoption on teachers' open practices, Observing a kindergarten classroom through a one-way mirror, Explaining teenagers' moral reasoning in their own words, Utilizing a standardized test to determine intelligence, Analyzing usage data for a web-based learning app. Prolonged engagement at a site is "to test . 2023 Feb 7;7:126034. doi: 10.22454/PRiMER.2023.126034. 1991 Jun;8(2):119-23. doi: 10.1111/j.1525-1446.1991.tb00655.x. Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. For example, if a researcher wanted to understand the phenomenon of Texas high school football, this would require being present at least through a full season of the sport and may also require presence in the pre-season and the off-season, whereas a researcher who simply showed up for a championship game would have little understanding of the nuances, histories, difficulties, perplexities, and larger context of what they were witnessing. A process of critically analysing our research practice, coupled with an exploration of available literature has led to some clarity on the issue, as shared here. Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1998). Given that qualitative research is aimed at understanding subjective experiences that we would not expect to be consistently measured from one study to the next, how exactly do we support claims of rigor in qualitative studies? The standards presented by Lincoln and Guba (1985) and by Guba and Lincoln (1989) provide an excellent core of standards for a beginning. Public Health Nurs. Interviewing the investigator: Strategies for addressing instrumentation and researcher bias concerns in qualitative research. 2003 Jan;41(1):80-7. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2648.2003.02509.x. xL #P Xt^[$"';C+J*'aPaHaaj]muEh 5+$u^(dYz;Jk)2hM`|_ ^P)7\YLMq&#Q1 That is, it should be clear to readers that the researcher discovered something of the viewpoints held by the people they studied and can see them as they see themselves. Triangulation: This refers to the examination of phenomena of interest from multiple angles. These include prolonged engagement, persistent observation, triangulation, peer debriefing, negative case analysis, and member checking (Lincoln & Guba, 1986). Qualitative researchers would expectedly make analytical or at least contextual decisions from their data that are particularly salient to their research. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Graneheim and Lundman (2004) expressed a view that text always involves multiple meanings and there is always some degree of interpretation when approaching a text (p. 106). government site. The JDE is published as a forum for educators concerned with the practice, theory, research, and news of the post-secondary developmental and remedial community. Credibility is the standard by which a qualitative study is expected to be believable to critical readers and to be approved by the persons who provided the information gathered during the study. Lincoln and Guba (1986) proposed that the criterion of credibility be approached as an analog to internal validity (p. 76). For instance, if a researcher interviewed parents about their reasons for enrolling their students in charter schools, the researcher might provide each parent with a transcript of the interview as well as the researcher's summary and key takeaways of what was said. If a researcher completes such an extensive process, the resulting qualitative inquiry report is considered very credible. << Validity in qualitative research: Application of afeguards. But, these types of procedures for building reliability and validity simply do not transfer to qualitative research, as qualitative research is not aimed at producing the same types of knowledge claims as quantitative studies (Morrow, 2005, p. 252). As just noted, providing this level of detail allows those who read your study to determine for themselves whether and to what degree your findings are transferable to other related settings. In terms of dependability, the best safeguard is, as mentioned above, external audit. %%EOF '>n\|.j.P#ni9v|@;-a? This landmark contribution to qualitative research remains in use today, with only minor modifications in format. For instance, if a researcher wanted to understand racially-motivated bullying in schools, a single interview with a bullied child might provide rich data about that child's experience, but readers might be left wondering how pervasive such experiences are and how race played a role in the child being targeted. Attempts to share what the researcher is learning should be communicated clearly. While the accuracy and reliability of actigraphy have been explored extensively, research regarding young people's opinion towards these devices is scarce. Negative case analysis is an analytic procedure that is meant to refine conclusions until they account for all possible cases, without any exceptions. How do I conduct qualitative research in a rigorous manner? In such situations, the researcher might find alternative ways to share what they are concluding in understandable ways, perhaps simplifying reports or reading segments to a participant and then relying on oral feedback and reactions. Nurse Res. FOIA Strategies to ensure the rigour of this research were prolonged engagement and . Issues that such students might face, such as working jobs to support their families, providing childcare to working parents, not having access to a quiet study location, and so forth, would not be readily apparent if the researcher didn't leave the confines of the school or the 9 am to 3 pm hours of the established school day. Phenomenologic research as a theoretic initiative in community health nursing.

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